A Temporary Stent for Benign Prostatic Enlargement: Temporary Treatment Without a Permanent Implant

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Benign prostatic hyperplasia or BPH is a non-cancerous enlargement of the prostate. As the prostate grows, it may compress the urethra and interfere with emptying the bladder.

Typical symptoms include:

  • A weak or interrupted urinary stream
  • Difficulty starting urination
  • Straining to pass urine
  • Urinary frequency or urgency
  • Getting up repeatedly at night
  • Dribbling after urination
  • A feeling that the bladder has not emptied completely

Medication is often the first treatment. However, tablets do not help every patient and may cause dizziness, tiredness, reduced ejaculation, erectile difficulties or reduced libido. The iTind procedure offers selected men a minimally invasive alternative to long-term medication or conventional prostate surgery.

What is iTind / Temporary Stent?

The iTind is a small temporary device made from nitinol, a flexible nickel–titanium alloy with “shape memory.”

It is sometimes called a temporary prostatic stent, although it differs from a traditional stent because it is not intended to remain permanently within the prostate. The device is left in place for only five to seven days and is then removed completely.

While in position, three expanding struts apply controlled pressure to specific areas of the prostate and bladder neck. This remodels the prostatic urethra and creates channels through which urine can flow more easily.

The procedure does not:

  • Permanently implant metal within the prostate
  • Remove prostate tissue
  • Use laser, heat or steam
  • Prevent future prostate treatments if symptoms return

Who may benefit from iTind?

iTind may be considered for men who have bothersome urinary symptoms caused by BPH and who:

  • Have obtained insufficient benefit from medication
  • Have developed side effects from BPH tablets
  • Prefer not to take daily medication indefinitely
  • Want a less invasive alternative to TURP or laser surgery
  • Wish to minimise the risk of ejaculatory or erectile side effects
  • Prefer not to have a permanent prostatic implant
  • Have prostate size and anatomy suitable for the device

The procedure is generally best suited to men with moderate-to-severe symptoms and a prostate measuring approximately 25–75 mL, without a significantly obstructing median lobe.

These measurements are a guide rather than a guarantee of suitability. The shape of the prostate, severity of obstruction and function of the bladder are as important as prostate size.

Assessment before treatment

Urinary symptoms are not always caused by an enlarged prostate. Similar problems can result from infection, urethral narrowing, bladder weakness, an overactive bladder, neurological disease, medication or, less commonly, cancer.

Assessment may therefore include:

  • Medical history and examination
  • International Prostate Symptom Score
  • Urine testing
  • PSA testing when appropriate
  • Urinary-flow measurement
  • Ultrasound measurement of residual urine
  • Prostate ultrasound or other imaging
  • Flexible cystoscopy
  • Urodynamic testing in selected patients

Any urinary infection should be treated before the procedure.

Patients taking aspirin, warfarin, clopidogrel, apixaban, rivaroxaban or other blood-thinning medication require an individual management plan. Do not stop blood thinners without instructions from your prescribing doctor and urologist.

How is the iTind procedure performed?

Insertion

The folded iTind device is passed through the urethra using a small cystoscope. It is positioned in the prostatic urethra immediately below the bladder neck and then released.

The procedure is usually performed as day surgery. Depending on the patient and treatment setting, local anaesthetic, intravenous sedation or a short general anaesthetic may be used.

A soft retrieval string remains attached to the device and passes out through the urethra. It is usually secured to the penis until the device is removed.

Most patients can return home on the same day without a urinary catheter. Occasionally, temporary catheterisation is necessary if the patient is unable to pass urine.

The treatment period

The device remains inside the prostate for five to seven days. Its struts gradually apply pressure to the prostate and bladder neck, creating three longitudinal channels within the urinary passage.

Patients remain at home during this treatment period.

Removal

The device must be removed after five to seven days. It is collapsed into a soft catheter and withdrawn in one piece, usually during a brief outpatient visit.

Local anaesthetic gel is often sufficient, although additional pain relief or sedation may be offered when appropriate. No metal or permanent implant remains inside the prostate after removal.

What should I expect while the device is in place?

The five-to-seven-day treatment period is generally the most uncomfortable part of the process. Common temporary symptoms include:

  • Pelvic or perineal pressure
  • Burning or stinging when passing urine
  • Urinary urgency and frequency
  • Discomfort at the tip of the penis
  • Bladder spasms
  • Light bleeding in the urine
  • Interrupted sleep
  • Awareness of the retrieval string
  • A temporarily weak or irregular urinary stream

These symptoms are usually mild to moderate and commonly improve soon after the device is removed.

Patients should generally avoid heavy lifting, vigorous exercise, cycling and sexual activity while the device and retrieval string are in place. Follow the particular instructions provided by your urologist.

The retrieval string should not be pulled, cut, repositioned or removed by the patient.

How can pain and discomfort be managed?

Pain varies considerably between patients. Some men experience only mild pressure, while others find urinary urgency, bladder spasm or discomfort from the retrieval string more troublesome.

A pain-management plan may include the following measures.

Paracetamol

Paracetamol is usually the first choice for mild-to-moderate discomfort. Take it according to your doctor’s instructions or the directions on the packet.

Check cold, influenza and combination pain medicines carefully, as these may also contain paracetamol. Do not exceed the recommended daily dose.

Patients with significant liver disease or heavy alcohol consumption should discuss paracetamol use with their doctor.

Anti-inflammatory medication

An anti-inflammatory medicine such as ibuprofen may help reduce pain and inflammation when medically appropriate.

These medications may not be suitable for patients with:

  • Kidney impairment
  • Stomach ulcers or gastrointestinal bleeding
  • Heart failure or certain cardiovascular conditions
  • Asthma triggered by anti-inflammatory medication
  • Bleeding disorders
  • Anticoagulant or antiplatelet treatment

Check with your urologist, general practitioner or pharmacist before taking an anti-inflammatory medication.

Medication for bladder irritation

An alpha blocker may occasionally be continued or prescribed temporarily to help urine flow. A bladder-calming medication may be considered if urgency or bladder spasms are particularly troublesome.

These medicines are not necessary for every patient and have their own potential side effects.

Practical measures

It may also help to:

  • Maintain normal hydration without forcing excessive fluids
  • Reduce coffee, tea, cola drinks, alcohol and energy drinks
  • Avoid constipation
  • Wear loose, supportive underwear
  • Avoid heavy lifting and strenuous exercise
  • Take pain relief early rather than waiting until discomfort becomes severe

Strong opioid medication is not usually required. It may worsen constipation and, in susceptible patients, contribute to difficulty emptying the bladder.

Severe or increasing pain is not considered something that should simply be tolerated. Contact the treating practice if the discomfort is not controlled by the recommended measures.

What happens after removal?

Burning, urinary urgency and light bleeding may continue briefly after the device is removed, but these symptoms should progressively improve.

Some patients notice an improvement in their stream soon after removal. For others, improvement develops more gradually over several weeks as irritation settles and the remodelled urinary channels stabilise.

Many patients return to normal daily activities within a few days. Your urologist will advise when you may resume strenuous exercise and sexual activity.

Follow-up may include:

  • Review of urinary symptoms
  • Repeat symptom scoring
  • A urinary-flow test
  • Measurement of residual urine
  • Discussion about continuing or stopping BPH medication

Do not stop established prostate medication unless advised to do so.

Side effects and possible complications

Most side effects are temporary and occur while the device is in place. Reported problems include:

  • Burning during urination
  • Urinary frequency and urgency
  • Pelvic discomfort or pain
  • Blood in the urine
  • Temporary difficulty passing urine
  • Urinary tract infection
  • Bladder spasm
  • Movement or incorrect positioning of the device
  • Temporary catheterisation
  • Failure to obtain sufficient symptom relief

Published studies report different complication rates, but most events have been mild and self-limiting. Temporary haematuria, dysuria, urgency and pelvic discomfort are the most frequently reported problems.

Acute urinary retention, urinary infection or significant bleeding are less common but important complications.

When should I seek urgent medical attention?

Contact your urologist or attend an emergency department if you:

  • Cannot pass urine
  • Develop fever, shaking or chills
  • Feel generally unwell or confused
  • Develop severe or increasing pelvic pain
  • Pass large blood clots
  • Have heavy or persistent bright-red bleeding
  • Cannot keep fluids down
  • Notice that the retrieval string or device has moved
  • Develop pain that is not controlled by the agreed treatment plan

Does iTind affect erections or ejaculation?

One of the principal attractions of iTind is its favourable sexual side-effect profile.

Clinical studies have reported preservation of erectile and ejaculatory function in most treated patients. This contrasts with tissue-removing prostate procedures, which may carry a significant risk of retrograde or absent ejaculation.

Nevertheless, no treatment can guarantee that sexual or ejaculatory function will remain unchanged in every patient.

How effective is iTind?

Studies have demonstrated average improvements in:

  • Urinary symptom scores
  • Quality of life
  • Peak urinary-flow rate
  • The patient’s perception of urinary function

The improvement may be less dramatic than that achieved with a tissue-removing operation such as TURP or laser enucleation. The advantage is that iTind is less invasive, usually requires little recovery time and has a low reported risk of sexual side effects.

It is therefore best viewed as a balance between symptom improvement and treatment invasiveness.

How long does the benefit last?

Although the implant remains in place for only five to seven days, the channels produced within the prostate may remain open for several years.

Prospective studies have demonstrated sustained benefit for more than four years in some appropriately selected patients. This does not mean that iTind is guaranteed to last for four years—or that it will provide lifelong relief.

BPH may continue to progress as a man ages. Some patients will eventually need to restart medication or undergo another procedure. Longer-term evidence for iTind remains more limited than that available for established procedures such as TURP or laser enucleation.

Because nothing is left permanently inside the prostate, iTind does not generally prevent later treatment. Options may include medication, another minimally invasive procedure, TURP, GreenLight laser treatment, HoLEP or another form of prostate surgery.

Who should not undergo iTind?

Contraindications described in the manufacturer’s information include:

  • Active urinary tract infection
  • Acute prostatitis
  • Known prostate cancer
  • Known bladder cancer
  • An artificial urinary sphincter or another implant within the urethra
  • Bladder atonia or a non-contractile bladder
  • Neurogenic bladder dysfunction
  • Urinary obstruction caused by a urethral stricture or something other than BPH

The procedure may also be unsuitable or less predictable in men with:

  • A significantly obstructing median prostatic lobe
  • A prostate outside the best-studied size range
  • Severe chronic urinary retention
  • Very high residual urine volumes
  • Recurrent urinary infections
  • Bladder stones
  • Significant ongoing haematuria
  • Advanced bladder weakness
  • A need for rapid and substantial removal of obstructing tissue
  • Anatomy that prevents safe cystoscopic access

Previous prostate surgery, urethral surgery, nickel sensitivity and blood-thinning medication require individual consideration.

Patients with obstruction causing kidney impairment, repeated retention, recurrent infections, bladder stones or significant bleeding may receive more reliable relief from a definitive tissue-removing procedure.

Advantages of iTind

Potential advantages include:

  • Minimally invasive day procedure
  • No cutting, laser, steam or thermal energy
  • No permanent implant
  • Usually no postoperative catheter
  • Rapid return to ordinary activities
  • Low reported risk of new erectile dysfunction
  • Low reported risk of ejaculatory dysfunction
  • Does not usually compromise future BPH treatment

Limitations of iTind

Potential limitations include:

  • Discomfort during the treatment week
  • A retrieval string for five to seven days
  • A second procedure to remove the device
  • Not suitable for every prostate shape or size
  • Less improvement than some tissue-removing procedures
  • Possibility of persistent or recurrent symptoms
  • Potential need for future medication or surgery
  • Less very-long-term evidence than TURP or laser enucleation

Is iTind the right treatment for me?

iTind is not simply a smaller version of TURP. It offers a different compromise: a less invasive procedure with no permanent implant and a favourable sexual side-effect profile, but generally more modest improvement and less long-term evidence than tissue-removing surgery.

The best treatment depends on:

  • The severity of your symptoms
  • The size and shape of your prostate
  • The amount of urinary obstruction
  • Bladder strength and residual urine
  • Previous treatment
  • General health and medication
  • The importance of preserving ejaculation
  • Your willingness to accept possible future retreatment

A urological assessment is essential to confirm that BPH is responsible for the symptoms and to compare iTind fairly with medication, Rezūm, UroLift, TURP, GreenLight laser, HoLEP and other appropriate treatments.

This information is intended for general education and does not replace individual medical advice. Treatment suitability, availability and costs vary. Always follow the instructions provided by your treating urologist.

References

  1. Sandhu JS, et al. Management of Lower Urinary Tract Symptoms Attributed to Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia: AUA Guideline Amendment 2023. Journal of Urology. 2024.
  2. Chughtai B, et al. The iTind Temporarily Implanted Nitinol Device for the Treatment of Lower Urinary Tract Symptoms Secondary to Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia: A Multicentre, Randomised, Controlled Trial. Urology. 2021;153:270–276.
  3. Kadner G, et al. Second generation of temporary implantable nitinol device in men with lower urinary tract symptoms: two-year results of the MT-02 study. World Journal of Urology. 2020;38:3235–3244.
  4. Amparore D, et al. Three-year results following treatment with the second-generation temporary implantable nitinol device. Prostate Cancer and Prostatic Diseases. 2021;24:349–357.
  5. Amparore D, et al. Temporary implantable nitinol device for BPH-related lower urinary tract symptoms: over 48-month results. Minerva Urology and Nephrology. 2023;75:743–751.
  6. NICE: iTind for lower urinary tract symptoms caused by BPH.
  7. Olympus: iTind clinical and procedural information.

Persistent sperm after vasectomy: does this mean the procedure has failed?

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Finding sperm in a semen sample after vasectomy can be worrying. However, a positive result does not always mean that the vasectomy has failed.

Sperm may remain in the reproductive tract for several weeks or months after the procedure. The most important questions are:

  • How long has it been since the vasectomy?
  • How many sperm are present?
  • Are any of the sperm still moving?
  • Is the sperm count decreasing on repeat testing?

A vasectomy does not work immediately

During a vasectomy, the two vas deferens, the tubes carrying sperm from the testicles, are divided and sealed. Sperm already present beyond the site of the vasectomy may remain in the seminal tract and appear in subsequent ejaculations.

It can take several months and approximately 20 ejaculations to clear these remaining sperm. Australian patient guidance commonly recommends the first post-vasectomy semen analysis at approximately three months. International guidelines generally allow testing within about 8–16 weeks, depending on the surgeon’s protocol.

Another form of contraception must be used until your surgeon has reviewed the semen result and formally confirmed clearance.

What is a post-vasectomy semen analysis?

A post-vasectomy semen analysis, or PVSA, examines the semen for:

  • The presence or absence of sperm
  • The number of sperm present
  • Whether the sperm are motile or non-motile

The desired result is azoospermia, meaning that no sperm are detected. However, complete azoospermia is not always necessary for a vasectomy to be considered successful.

When should azoospermia occur?

Many men are azoospermic by approximately three months after vasectomy, particularly if they have ejaculated regularly. Others take longer to clear their residual sperm.

Delayed clearance may be associated with:

  • A relatively low number of ejaculations
  • Individual differences in reproductive-tract anatomy
  • Older age
  • A long interval between ejaculations
  • Laboratory technique and the timing of sample examination
  • Temporary early recanalisation of the vasectomy site

Persistent sperm at the first test should therefore not automatically be interpreted as surgical failure. The type of sperm and the trend on repeat testing are more informative.

What does an “immotile sperm count” mean?

Immotile or non-motile sperm are sperm that are present but show no movement when examined under the microscope.

Following vasectomy, this commonly represents old residual sperm that have not yet been completely cleared. Non-motile sperm have extremely limited capacity to cause pregnancy, particularly when present in very small numbers.

The generally accepted categories are:

Semen-analysis result Usual interpretation
No sperm detected Azoospermia, vasectomy clearance can usually be given
No motile sperm and ≤100,000 non-motile sperm/mL Rare non-motile sperm, generally regarded as successful vas occlusion
More than 100,000 non-motile sperm/mL Repeat testing and assessment of the trend are required
Any motile sperm Clearance should not be given; repeat testing is required

The report should be interpreted carefully because some laboratories report the concentration per millilitre, while others may report a total number or simply state that “occasional sperm” were seen.

A fresh sample is important when assessing motility. If examination is substantially delayed, sperm that were initially moving may have stopped, potentially producing a misleading “non-motile” result.

What are rare non-motile sperm?

Rare non-motile sperm, often abbreviated as RNMS, usually means that no moving sperm are seen and the concentration is no more than 100,000 non-motile sperm per millilitre.

Current Australian and American guidance generally regards either azoospermia or RNMS at or below this threshold as evidence of successful vas occlusion. Depending on the laboratory method and local protocol, your surgeon may provide clearance after one satisfactory sample or request another confirmatory sample.

The estimated risk of pregnancy after clearance based on azoospermia or RNMS is approximately 1 in 2,000. Vasectomy is therefore extremely reliable, but no method of contraception is completely infallible.

What happens if sperm are detected at three months?

Management depends on the result.

A small number of non-motile sperm

This is usually reassuring. If the count is no more than 100,000/mL and no motile sperm are present, clearance may be appropriate according to the treating surgeon’s protocol.

More than 100,000 non-motile sperm/mL

Continue contraception and repeat the semen analysis. A steadily decreasing count suggests delayed clearance rather than vasectomy failure.

Motile sperm

Continue contraception and arrange another semen analysis. Motile sperm early after vasectomy do not invariably mean that a repeat operation will be required, particularly if the number is low and decreasing. Persistent or increasing motile sperm are more concerning for incomplete occlusion or recanalisation.

What is recommended at six months?

Six months is an important decision point.

Motile sperm persisting at six months

If any motile sperm remain at six months, the vasectomy should generally be regarded as an occlusive failure. A repeat vasectomy should be discussed.

Possible explanations include:

  • One vas deferens was not successfully divided
  • An unusual or duplicated vas deferens was present
  • The divided ends have reconnected
  • A small channel has developed across the vasectomy site

More than 100,000 non-motile sperm/mL at six months

This result requires individual assessment rather than an automatic decision.

The surgeon will consider:

  • Whether the count is decreasing, stable or increasing
  • Whether motile sperm were present in earlier samples
  • The reliability and timing of sample collection
  • The vasectomy technique used
  • The couple’s tolerance for even a very small pregnancy risk
  • Whether further semen analyses are likely to provide clarity

Repeat vasectomy, continued contraception or further surveillance may be considered through shared decision-making.

Fewer than 100,000 non-motile sperm/mL at six months

If no motile sperm are present and the count is at or below 100,000/mL, most contemporary guidance considers this compatible with successful vasectomy. Formal clearance must nevertheless come from the treating surgeon.

When should a repeat vasectomy be considered?

A repeat procedure is usually considered when:

  • Motile sperm persist at six months
  • Motile sperm counts increase on consecutive tests
  • There is no meaningful reduction in the sperm count
  • More than 100,000 non-motile sperm/mL persist beyond six months and the results remain concerning
  • A pregnancy occurs after the vasectomy
  • Clinical or operative findings suggest that one vas deferens may not have been successfully occluded

Repeat vasectomy is required in no more than approximately 1% of procedures when an effective occlusion technique has been used.

Is repeat vasectomy the same as vasectomy reversal?

No. A repeat vasectomy aims to divide and seal the vas deferens again because the first procedure has not produced reliable contraception.

A vasectomy reversal is a different microsurgical procedure that attempts to restore fertility by reconnecting the vas deferens.

What should I do while waiting for another test?

Until formal clearance has been provided:

  • Continue using reliable contraception
  • Ejaculate regularly if comfortable
  • Follow the laboratory’s collection instructions carefully
  • Collect the entire sample
  • Record the collection time accurately
  • Deliver the sample within the laboratory’s required timeframe
  • Do not assume that “non-motile” automatically means that clearance has been granted

The important message

Persistent sperm after vasectomy does not necessarily mean that the procedure has failed.

A small number of non-motile sperm is common and may be compatible with successful vasectomy. Motile sperm, a persistently high non-motile count or a count that is increasing requires continued contraception and further assessment.

At six months, persistent motile sperm generally prompts consideration of repeat vasectomy. Persistent non-motile sperm above 100,000/mL requires review of serial results and an individual discussion with the treating urologist.

Do not stop contraception until your surgeon has confirmed in writing that your post-vasectomy semen analysis meets the required clearance criteria.

This information is intended for general education and does not replace individual medical advice or interpretation of your laboratory result.

References and further information

So, if you are having issues, come see your Brisbane Urologist to discuss management options.

Protecting the Rectum During Prostate Radiotherapy: A Patient Guide

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Radiotherapy is an established treatment for many men with prostate cancer. Modern planning and image-guidance techniques can direct radiation accurately, but the prostate lies immediately in front of the rectum. Because the two organs are so close, part of the rectal wall may receive radiation during treatment.

Radiation teams use several methods to limit exposure to surrounding healthy tissue. For selected patients, one option is to place a temporary biodegradable material between the prostate and rectum before radiotherapy planning.

This article explains why bowel effects occur, how rectal spacing works, its possible benefits and limitations, and the questions patients should discuss with their treating team. It does not recommend a particular product, device or brand.

Why can prostate radiotherapy affect the bowel?

The front wall of the rectum normally sits very close to the back of the prostate. Radiation directed at the prostate may therefore also reach a small amount of nearby rectal tissue.

Possible bowel effects during or after radiotherapy include:

  • increased bowel frequency
  • urgency
  • loose stools or diarrhoea
  • mucus discharge
  • rectal discomfort
  • bleeding
  • inflammation known as radiation proctitis

Many bowel symptoms are mild and settle after treatment, but some develop later or persist. Risk varies with the radiation technique, dose, fractionation schedule, individual anatomy, bowel health, medicines and previous pelvic treatment.

Rectal bleeding after radiotherapy should not automatically be attributed to radiation. Other causes, including haemorrhoids, polyps, inflammatory bowel disease and bowel cancer, may require investigation.

How is the rectum protected?

Protection begins with careful radiotherapy planning rather than with a spacer alone. Strategies may include:

  • intensity-modulated or volumetric-modulated radiotherapy
  • image guidance before and during treatment
  • accurate bladder and bowel preparation
  • management of rectal gas or stool
  • individualised dose constraints
  • limiting movement of the prostate
  • selecting an appropriate radiation schedule
  • a temporary rectal spacer in selected patients

A spacer is therefore an additional planning tool, not a substitute for high-quality radiation oncology.

What is a rectal spacer?

A rectal spacer is a temporary biodegradable material placed into the tissue plane between the prostate and the anterior rectal wall. Increasing this distance may reduce the radiation dose received by the rectum.

Materials used in currently available spacer systems include:

  • polyethylene-glycol hydrogel
  • stabilised hyaluronic-acid gel

These materials have different handling and imaging characteristics. They should not be assumed to have identical evidence, contraindications or safety profiles.

A spacer does not treat prostate cancer. Its role is to alter the anatomy temporarily while radiation treats the cancer.

Do all men having prostate radiotherapy need a spacer?

No. Many patients can receive carefully planned radiotherapy without one.

Potential benefit depends on factors such as:

  • the natural distance between the prostate and rectum
  • prostate size and shape
  • tumour position and extent
  • radiation dose and treatment schedule
  • the ability to meet rectal dose constraints without a spacer
  • previous prostate or pelvic procedures
  • bowel disease
  • bleeding risk and relevant medicines
  • whether pelvic lymph nodes are also being treated
  • local expertise and access

For some patients, the predicted reduction in rectal dose may be clinically meaningful. For others, the benefit may be small, uncertain or outweighed by the insertion risk.

The decision is usually made with the radiation oncologist. A urologist or another trained proceduralist may also be involved.

What does the evidence show?

Clinical studies of biodegradable rectal spacers generally show that increasing the distance between the prostate and rectum can reduce the radiation dose delivered to parts of the rectal wall.

A multicentre randomised trial involving 201 men receiving hypofractionated prostate radiotherapy evaluated a hyaluronic-acid spacer. The study reported improved rectal dosimetry and fewer acute grade 2 or worse gastrointestinal adverse events in the spacer group than in the control group.

These findings are relevant but require context:

  • dosimetric improvement does not guarantee that an individual patient will avoid bowel symptoms
  • trial participants and treatment protocols may differ from patients treated in routine practice
  • evidence for short-term bowel outcomes is stronger than evidence for some long-term outcomes
  • results for one spacer material or insertion technique should not automatically be applied to another
  • operator experience and correct placement affect both benefit and risk

Patients should ask how the published evidence applies to their planned radiotherapy technique and personal anatomy.

How is a spacer inserted?

The procedure is generally performed before radiotherapy planning.

Under ultrasound guidance, a needle is passed through the perineum—the skin between the scrotum and anus—into the potential space between the prostate and rectum. The tissue plane is checked carefully, and the spacer material is then introduced while its position is monitored.

Depending on the patient and treating centre, the procedure may use:

  • local anaesthesia
  • sedation
  • general anaesthesia

Fiducial markers used to help target radiotherapy may sometimes be inserted during the same procedure.

The exact preparation, antibiotic policy, management of anticoagulants and post-procedure care vary. Patients should follow the instructions given by their treating team.

Why does correct placement matter?

The spacer needs to create suitable separation along the part of the rectum closest to the planned radiation target. Too little separation, marked asymmetry or injection into the wrong tissue plane may reduce the expected dosimetric benefit.

Incorrect placement may also injure the rectal wall, prostate, urethra, bladder or nearby blood vessels. Training, real-time imaging, careful patient selection and recognition of abnormal anatomy are therefore important.

Some hyaluronic-acid materials can be broken down with an enzyme if significant malposition is recognised. This does not make incorrect placement harmless or remove the need for prevention, prompt assessment and appropriate management.

Who may be unsuitable?

Suitability depends on the particular device instructions, the patient’s anatomy and the clinical situation. Reasons to avoid or reconsider insertion may include:

  • infection or inflammation near the proposed injection site
  • inability to identify a safe tissue plane
  • tumour extending into the space behind the prostate
  • extensive scarring from previous surgery or treatment
  • significant rectal or anorectal disease
  • uncorrected bleeding disorder
  • anticoagulant or antiplatelet therapy that cannot be managed safely
  • allergy or hypersensitivity relevant to the proposed material
  • significant immunosuppression
  • a situation in which the expected dosimetric benefit is minimal

The approved Australian instructions for use for the exact device should be checked by the treating clinician.

Anticoagulant and antiplatelet medicines must not be stopped without advice from the clinician who manages them. Interrupting these medicines can cause stroke, heart attack, thrombosis or other serious harm.

Possible short-term effects

Temporary effects may include:

  • perineal discomfort or bruising
  • minor bleeding
  • a sensation of rectal fullness
  • discomfort when opening the bowels
  • urinary frequency or burning
  • a weaker urinary stream
  • constipation

The pattern and duration vary. New, severe or worsening symptoms require clinical review.

Uncommon but important complications

Spacer insertion is invasive and can cause serious complications, even when performed carefully.

Reported or plausible complications include:

  • infection, prostatitis or pelvic abscess
  • bleeding or haematoma
  • urinary retention
  • significant rectal or pelvic pain
  • spacer malposition or migration
  • injection into the rectal wall, prostate or another unintended site
  • injury to the urethra, bladder, rectum or blood vessel
  • rectal ulceration or tissue necrosis
  • embolic or vascular complications
  • fistula formation
  • need for further treatment, hospital admission or surgery

Severe pain, fever, difficulty passing urine, heavy bleeding, worsening bowel symptoms or feeling systemically unwell after the procedure should be assessed promptly.

What happens to the spacer?

Biodegradable spacers are intended to remain during the radiotherapy period and then gradually break down and be absorbed.

The expected duration and degradation process depend on the material. A second operation is not normally required solely to remove an appropriately placed biodegradable spacer.

Different spacer materials

The choice should not be reduced to a promotional comparison between brand names. Relevant clinical differences may include:

Consideration Hyaluronic-acid gel Polyethylene-glycol hydrogel
Primary purpose Temporary prostate–rectum separation Temporary prostate–rectum separation
Typical placement Transperineal, image-guided Transperineal, image-guided
Biodegradable Yes Yes
Handling Deposited and shaped during injection Forms a hydrogel after delivery
Imaging Visibility depends on material and imaging method Some formulations are designed for greater CT visibility
Evidence Randomised and observational studies are available Randomised, prospective and observational studies are available
Key limitation Insertion-related risk and dependence on correct placement Insertion-related risk and dependence on correct placement

This table is descriptive, not a claim that one material is safer or more effective. Head-to-head observational comparisons may be affected by patient selection, injected volume, operator technique, learning curve and treatment planning. They cannot by themselves establish universal superiority.

What about previous surgery or salvage radiotherapy?

Previous prostate procedures, pelvic surgery, focal therapy, radiotherapy or inflammation may alter the tissue plane behind the prostate. This can make placement more difficult or unsuitable.

The evidence for spacers in salvage or re-irradiation settings is less established than for primary prostate radiotherapy. These cases require individual assessment in an experienced multidisciplinary setting.

Questions to ask before deciding

  • What bowel risks are associated with my proposed radiotherapy plan?
  • Can the required rectal dose limits be met without a spacer?
  • What additional benefit is expected in my anatomy?
  • What spacer material is proposed, and is the exact device included in the ARTG for this intended use?
  • What evidence supports it for my radiation schedule?
  • Who will perform the procedure, and what is their experience?
  • What are the recognised contraindications and complications?
  • How will my anticoagulant or antiplatelet medicines be managed?
  • What symptoms after insertion require urgent review?
  • What are the alternatives if I choose not to have a spacer?
  • Are there additional costs or gaps?

Australian regulatory considerations

The Australian Register of Therapeutic Goods (ARTG) is the public database of therapeutic goods that may be legally supplied in Australia, unless an exemption or another authorised access pathway applies. An ARTG entry records the particular sponsor and intended purpose; it is not a general recommendation that the product is best for an individual patient.

Device inclusion, instructions for use, contraindications, availability and reimbursement can change. The treating team should confirm the current ARTG entry and approved instructions for the exact device proposed.

The bottom line

The rectum lies close to the prostate and may receive some radiation during prostate-cancer treatment. Modern planning and image guidance are the foundation of rectal protection.

A biodegradable rectal spacer can create temporary separation and may reduce rectal radiation exposure in selected patients. It does not treat the cancer, cannot guarantee freedom from bowel effects and introduces procedural risks of its own.

The decision should be individualised according to anatomy, the proposed radiation plan, expected dosimetric benefit, medical history, bleeding risk and local expertise. It should be made before radiotherapy planning through an informed discussion with the treating radiation oncology team.

This article provides general disease education and does not replace individual medical advice. It does not promote or recommend a particular therapeutic device, spacer material, brand, clinician or health service.

References and further reading

 

Advanced and Metastatic Prostate Cancer: Modern Treatment and New Hope

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A diagnosis of advanced or metastatic prostate cancer can be frightening. However, the treatment landscape has changed dramatically over the past decade.

Where doctors once relied mainly on testosterone-lowering treatment, we now have combinations of androgen deprivation therapy (ADT), modern androgen-receptor medicines, chemotherapy, targeted treatments, radioligand therapy and, for selected cancers, immunotherapy.

Importantly, these treatments are increasingly being used earlier and in combination, rather than waiting for one treatment to fail before introducing the next.

The aim is not simply to lower the PSA. It is to control the cancer for as long as possible while maintaining quality of life.

What does “advanced” prostate cancer mean?

Advanced prostate cancer is not one single condition.

Locally advanced prostate cancer

The cancer has grown beyond the prostate or into nearby structures but has not necessarily spread to distant organs.

Metastatic hormone-sensitive prostate cancer

The cancer has spread elsewhere in the body, commonly to:

  • lymph nodes
  • bones
  • lungs
  • liver or other organs

but remains sensitive to testosterone suppression.

This is often abbreviated to mHSPC or metastatic hormone-sensitive prostate cancer.

Metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer

Over time, prostate cancer cells may learn to grow despite very low testosterone levels.

This is called metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer (mCRPC).

“Castration resistant” does not mean that there are no further treatments available. Quite the opposite. We now have several effective treatment classes that can be used at this stage.

1. Androgen Deprivation Therapy: The Foundation of Treatment

Prostate cancer cells are usually heavily dependent on male hormones, particularly testosterone.

Androgen deprivation therapy (ADT) reduces testosterone to very low levels.

This can be achieved with regular injections or implants using GnRH/LHRH agonists or antagonists. Surgical removal of the testosterone-producing portion of the testes, called an orchidectomy, remains effective but is now used less frequently.

ADT remains the backbone of treatment for metastatic prostate cancer.

However, an important change in modern prostate cancer management is that ADT alone is usually no longer considered adequate initial treatment for a fit man presenting with metastatic hormone-sensitive disease.

Current EAU recommendations favour combining ADT with another effective systemic treatment whenever the patient is sufficiently fit.

2. Double Therapy

One approach combines ADT with a modern androgen-receptor pathway inhibitor (ARPI).

Examples include:

Abiraterone + prednisone

Abiraterone blocks androgen production not only from the testes but also from the adrenal glands and within the cancer itself.

Potential side effects include:

  • high blood pressure
  • low potassium
  • fluid retention
  • abnormal liver function
  • cardiac problems in susceptible patients
  • steroid-related effects

Enzalutamide

This blocks signalling through the androgen receptor.

Possible side effects include fatigue, hypertension, falls, cognitive effects and, rarely, seizures.

Apalutamide

Another potent androgen-receptor inhibitor. Side effects may include fatigue, rash, hypertension, falls and thyroid abnormalities.

Darolutamide

Darolutamide also inhibits androgen-receptor signalling and has relatively limited penetration into the central nervous system, which may be advantageous for some patients.

Current EAU guidance strongly supports treatment intensification rather than ADT alone in suitable patients with metastatic hormone-sensitive disease.

3. Triple Therapy: Three Treatments From the Starting Line

One of the biggest developments in metastatic prostate cancer has been triplet therapy.

Instead of:

ADT alone

or:

ADT + one additional treatment

selected patients may receive:

ADT + chemotherapy + an androgen-receptor pathway inhibitor

Two landmark trials helped establish this approach.

ARASENS

The phase III ARASENS trial investigated:

ADT + docetaxel + darolutamide

compared with:

ADT + docetaxel + placebo

The addition of darolutamide reduced the risk of death by approximately 32.5%, with a hazard ratio for death of 0.68.

Four-year overall survival was approximately 62.7% with triplet therapy compared with 50.4% in the control group.

PEACE-1

The PEACE-1 trial investigated the addition of abiraterone to standard treatment in men with newly diagnosed metastatic prostate cancer.

Among patients receiving ADT and docetaxel, adding abiraterone improved both radiographic progression-free survival and overall survival.

These studies have fundamentally changed how we approach a fit patient presenting with metastatic prostate cancer.

Who may benefit from triple therapy?

Triplet therapy is particularly considered in men who:

  • present initially with metastatic disease
  • have a significant metastatic burden
  • are medically fit enough to receive chemotherapy
  • have an expected lifespan sufficient to benefit from treatment intensification.

Treatment nevertheless needs to be individualised.

The EAU now recommends that when docetaxel is used for first-line metastatic hormone-sensitive disease, it should generally be given as part of combination treatment with ADT plus abiraterone or darolutamide in patients fit enough for chemotherapy.

One important scientific caveat remains: trials clearly demonstrated that triplet treatment is superior to ADT + docetaxel, but direct randomised evidence comparing triplet therapy against ADT + a modern ARPI without chemotherapy remains limited.

4. Chemotherapy

Docetaxel

Docetaxel remains an important chemotherapy for advanced prostate cancer.

It damages rapidly dividing cancer cells and is commonly given intravenously every three weeks for a defined number of cycles when used in hormone-sensitive metastatic disease.

Potential side effects include:

  • fatigue
  • temporary hair loss
  • lowered white blood cell count
  • infection
  • febrile neutropenia
  • anaemia
  • altered taste
  • nail changes
  • peripheral neuropathy
  • fluid retention.

Modern supportive treatment has made chemotherapy considerably more manageable than many patients expect.

Cabazitaxel

Cabazitaxel is generally used later, particularly when metastatic castration-resistant cancer has progressed following docetaxel and androgen-receptor pathway treatment.

Current ASCO recommendations include cabazitaxel as an important later-line treatment following appropriate prior ARPI and docetaxel therapy.

5. Should ADT Ever Be Intermittent?

This is an important question because ADT has significant long-term effects.

With intermittent ADT, treatment is stopped after a good PSA response and restarted when the PSA or cancer activity rises again.

The attraction is obvious: periods away from treatment may allow testosterone recovery and improvements in:

  • sexual function
  • hot flushes
  • energy
  • mood
  • muscle strength
  • metabolic health.

However, metastatic disease is different from some non-metastatic situations.

The large SWOG 9346 study could not establish that intermittent treatment was non-inferior to continuous ADT in metastatic disease. Consequently, a small survival disadvantage from intermittent therapy cannot be excluded.

The 2026 EAU guideline therefore notes that intermittent ADT has largely been superseded by continuous ADT-based combination therapy for metastatic disease.

For most men with metastatic prostate cancer, therefore, continuous hormonal suppression remains the standard.

Intermittent treatment may occasionally be considered in carefully selected circumstances after detailed discussion of the potential quality-of-life benefits and oncological uncertainty.

6. What Happens When the Cancer Becomes Castration Resistant?

A rising PSA despite very low testosterone does not automatically mean treatment has “stopped working.”

Rather, it tells us that the biology of the cancer has changed.

Importantly, ADT is usually continued even after castration resistance develops.

The next treatment depends heavily upon what the patient has already received.

Options can include:

  • docetaxel
  • cabazitaxel
  • abiraterone
  • enzalutamide
  • PARP inhibitors
  • radioligand therapy
  • radium-223
  • selected immunotherapy
  • clinical trials.

Simply moving repeatedly from one androgen-receptor drug to another is becoming less attractive because of significant cross-resistance.

7. Genetic Testing Has Become Part of Treatment

One of the most important changes in advanced prostate cancer management is the move toward precision medicine.

Men with metastatic disease should increasingly be considered for tumour genomic testing and, where appropriate, germline genetic testing.

Important abnormalities include mutations involving:

BRCA1, BRCA2 and other homologous recombination repair (HRR) genes.

These mutations may make the cancer susceptible to PARP inhibitors.

Examples include:

  • olaparib
  • niraparib
  • talazoparib
  • rucaparib in appropriate settings.

Some PARP inhibitors can now be combined with androgen-receptor treatments in appropriately selected patients.

The 2026 EAU guidelines specifically recommend testing metastatic patients for somatic or germline HRR abnormalities because the results may directly change treatment.

In other words, we increasingly need to know not only where the prostate cancer has spread, but what is driving it genetically.

8. Immunotherapy: Exciting, But Not for Everyone

Immunotherapy has transformed several cancers, but prostate cancer has proved more resistant to conventional immune checkpoint therapy.

For the average patient with metastatic prostate cancer, immunotherapy is not currently routine first-line treatment.

However, there is an important exception.

Pembrolizumab

A small proportion of prostate cancers have abnormalities known as:

  • MSI-high
  • mismatch-repair deficient (dMMR)
  • or, in relevant jurisdictions, sufficiently high tumour mutational burden.

These cancers may respond to the immune checkpoint inhibitor pembrolizumab.

ASCO’s 2026 living guideline recognises clinical activity of pembrolizumab in selected MSI-high/mismatch-repair-deficient metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer.

This is another reason why molecular testing has become important.

For unselected prostate cancer patients, however, large trials combining pembrolizumab with treatments such as docetaxel, enzalutamide or olaparib have not demonstrated the hoped-for survival improvement.

Immunotherapy therefore currently works best as a biomarker-selected treatment rather than a universal prostate cancer therapy.

Possible immune-related side effects include inflammation of normal organs, including:

  • thyroid dysfunction
  • skin inflammation
  • colitis and diarrhoea
  • hepatitis
  • pneumonitis
  • adrenal or pituitary abnormalities.

Although uncommon, some immune complications can be serious and require corticosteroid treatment.

9. PSMA Radioligand Therapy

Another major advance is lutetium-177 PSMA radioligand therapy, often written as ¹⁷⁷Lu-PSMA-617.

The treatment uses a molecule that recognises PSMA on prostate cancer cells and carries a radioactive isotope directly to those cells.

It is therefore rather like delivering radiation with a molecular address label attached.

For appropriately selected men with PSMA-positive metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer, it can provide another life-prolonging systemic treatment option.

The exact timing of ¹⁷⁷Lu-PSMA therapy is evolving rapidly as clinical trial evidence matures and regulatory indications change. Current EAU and ASCO recommendations include it among established systemic options for appropriately selected mCRPC patients.

Potential side effects include:

  • fatigue
  • dry mouth
  • nausea
  • reduced blood counts
  • anaemia
  • thrombocytopenia.

10. Radium-223 for Bone-Dominant Disease

Prostate cancer has a particular tendency to spread to bone.

Radium-223 is a radioactive treatment that preferentially targets areas of increased bone turnover.

It may be appropriate for selected men with symptomatic bone-predominant metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer without visceral metastases.

Its role needs to be carefully coordinated with other treatments and bone-health management.

11. Don’t Forget the Prostate Itself

It may seem strange to treat the prostate once cancer has already spread.

However, clinical studies have demonstrated that treating the primary prostate tumour with radiotherapy can improve outcomes in selected men presenting with low-volume metastatic disease.

The EAU therefore recommends prostate radiotherapy for appropriately selected patients presenting with low-volume metastatic hormone-sensitive prostate cancer.

This does not mean every man with metastatic prostate cancer should have prostate surgery or radiation. The benefit depends on the pattern and burden of metastatic disease.

12. Side Effects of Long-Term Hormonal Treatment

Because men may now live for many years with advanced prostate cancer, treatment side effects deserve almost as much attention as the cancer itself.

Long-term ADT may cause:

Sexual effects

Reduced libido, erectile dysfunction and loss of spontaneous erections are common.

Hot flushes

These can range from mildly annoying to profoundly disruptive.

Muscle loss

Testosterone suppression causes loss of muscle mass and strength unless actively countered.

Weight gain

Fat tends to accumulate particularly around the abdomen.

Metabolic changes

ADT can increase the risk of:

  • insulin resistance
  • diabetes
  • abnormal cholesterol
  • cardiovascular disease.

Bone thinning

Long-term ADT accelerates osteoporosis and increases fracture risk.

Current EAU guidance recommends formal assessment of osteoporosis risk, including DEXA scanning when commencing long-term ADT, together with appropriate bone protection.

Mood and cognition

Some men experience:

  • fatigue
  • low mood
  • reduced motivation
  • sleep disturbance
  • difficulty concentrating.

These symptoms deserve recognition and treatment rather than being dismissed as simply part of ageing.

Exercise Is Part of Cancer Treatment

Regular exercise is one of the most useful supportive treatments for men receiving long-term ADT.

A programme incorporating:

resistance training + aerobic exercise + balance work

can help preserve muscle, bone strength, cardiovascular fitness and independence.

Nutrition, weight management, smoking cessation, alcohol moderation and optimisation of cardiovascular risk factors should form part of long-term prostate cancer care.

Bone Health Matters

Men receiving prolonged ADT should have their fracture risk assessed.

Depending on bone density and metastatic involvement, treatment may include:

  • calcium and vitamin D when appropriate
  • resistance and weight-bearing exercise
  • bisphosphonates
  • denosumab.

Men receiving denosumab or bisphosphonates require appropriate calcium monitoring and usually dental assessment because of the uncommon but important risk of osteonecrosis of the jaw.

A New Way of Thinking About Metastatic Prostate Cancer

The old treatment pathway was fairly linear:

ADT → wait for progression → chemotherapy → another treatment.

Modern treatment looks very different.

It is increasingly:

Diagnose → accurately stage → molecularly profile → intensify treatment early → continuously reassess → select the next therapy according to previous treatment and tumour biology.

For some patients this means:

ADT + ARPI

For others:

ADT + docetaxel + darolutamide

or:

ADT + docetaxel + abiraterone

And later, depending on the tumour:

chemotherapy → PARP inhibition → PSMA radioligand therapy → radium-223 → selected immunotherapy or clinical trials.

There is no longer a single treatment pathway that suits every patient.

The Bottom Line

Advanced prostate cancer remains a serious disease, but its treatment has undergone a remarkable transformation.

The strongest contemporary evidence supports early treatment intensification for suitable men with metastatic hormone-sensitive prostate cancer rather than relying on ADT alone.

The ARASENS and PEACE-1 trials established an important role for triplet therapy in appropriately selected patients, while modern guidelines increasingly emphasise genomic testing, targeted treatment, radioligand therapy and careful sequencing of chemotherapy and androgen-receptor treatments.

Intermittent ADT is attractive from a quality-of-life perspective but is not the routine standard for metastatic disease, where continuous ADT-based combination treatment remains preferred.

Perhaps most importantly, treatment should not focus exclusively on the PSA.

Bone health, cardiovascular health, muscle strength, sexual health, psychological wellbeing and maintaining independence are all part of successful prostate cancer treatment.

For many men, metastatic prostate cancer can now be controlled for years through carefully planned sequences and combinations of treatment.

This information is intended for general patient education. Treatment of advanced prostate cancer should be individualised through discussion with a urologist, medical oncologist and radiation oncologist experienced in prostate cancer management.

Sexually Transmitted Infections in Men: What You Need to Know

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More than just an uncomfortable infection

Sexually transmitted infections (STIs) are extremely common and can affect people of any age who are sexually active.

For men, an STI may present with something obvious such as penile discharge, burning when passing urine, genital ulcers or warts. However, there is an important catch:

Many sexually transmitted infections cause no symptoms at all.

Chlamydia, for example, is frequently asymptomatic. A man may therefore carry and transmit an infection without knowing it.

Most STIs can be successfully treated or controlled. The reason they should not be ignored is that untreated infection can occasionally lead to significant complications, including:

  • epididymitis or epididymo-orchitis
  • chronic testicular or pelvic discomfort
  • urethritis
  • urethral scarring and stricture disease
  • impaired fertility
  • transmission to sexual partners
  • increased susceptibility to other infections
  • and, in the case of persistent high-risk HPV infection, an increased risk of penile and other cancers.

The good news is that modern STI testing is generally straightforward, discreet and highly accurate.

What exactly is an STI?

An STI is an infection that can be transmitted during sexual contact.

Transmission does not necessarily require penetrative intercourse. Depending upon the infection, transmission can occur through:

  • vaginal intercourse
  • anal intercourse
  • oral sex
  • genital-to-genital skin contact
  • contact with infected genital lesions
  • sharing sex toys
  • exposure to infected blood.

Some infections, particularly HPV and herpes, can be transmitted by intimate skin-to-skin contact even when condoms are used correctly.

Common STIs affecting men

Chlamydia

Chlamydia trachomatis is one of the most frequently diagnosed STIs in Australia and is particularly common in younger sexually active people. Most infections produce few or no symptoms.

When symptoms occur, men may notice:

  • burning or stinging when urinating
  • clear or cloudy penile discharge
  • urethral irritation
  • testicular discomfort
  • epididymal pain or swelling.

Untreated infection can occasionally progress to epididymo-orchitis, where infection and inflammation involve structures around the testicle.

This is particularly relevant to fertility because the epididymis is part of the pathway through which sperm travel.

Gonorrhoea

Gonorrhoea is caused by Neisseria gonorrhoeae.

It classically produces:

  • significant burning during urination
  • yellow, white or green penile discharge
  • urethral discomfort
  • occasionally testicular pain.

However, gonorrhoea can also occur in the throat or rectum and may be asymptomatic.

Diagnosis is usually made with a nucleic acid amplification test (NAAT/PCR). Culture may also be obtained, particularly because monitoring antibiotic resistance is increasingly important.

Untreated gonorrhoea may lead to persistent urethritis and occasionally epididymo-orchitis.

Historically, severe gonococcal urethritis was also an important cause of urethral stricture disease.

Mycoplasma genitalium

Mycoplasma genitalium, often shortened to M. genitalium, is another cause of sexually acquired urethritis.

Men may experience:

  • burning during urination
  • penile discharge
  • urethral discomfort
  • persistent or recurrent urethritis.

It becomes particularly relevant when symptoms continue despite apparently appropriate treatment for more common infections.

Treatment needs to be carefully selected because antibiotic resistance has become an important issue.

Syphilis

Syphilis is caused by Treponema pallidum.

It has sometimes been called the “great imitator” because it can produce an extraordinary range of symptoms.

Early infection may cause a painless genital ulcer or chancre.

Later symptoms can include:

  • rash
  • swollen lymph nodes
  • fever
  • neurological symptoms
  • cardiovascular complications.

Importantly, the initial ulcer can disappear without treatment.

That does not mean the infection has gone away.

Diagnosis usually involves blood tests, although PCR/NAAT testing may sometimes be performed directly from suitable lesions.

Syphilis remains an important STI in Australia. Treatment protocols depend upon the stage of infection and individual circumstances. Australian STI guidelines should be followed because treatment recommendations and medication availability can change.

Genital herpes

Genital herpes is caused predominantly by herpes simplex virus type 1 or type 2 (HSV-1 and HSV-2).

Symptoms may include:

  • clusters of painful blisters
  • genital ulcers
  • burning
  • tingling
  • painful urination
  • swollen groin lymph nodes
  • flu-like symptoms during an initial infection.

The virus subsequently remains dormant within sensory nerves and may reactivate.

Some people experience frequent outbreaks, while others have few or no further symptoms.

Antiviral medications such as valaciclovir, aciclovir or famciclovir can reduce the duration and severity of outbreaks. Suppressive antiviral therapy can be considered for frequent or troublesome recurrences.

There is currently no treatment that completely eliminates HSV from the body.

HPV and genital warts

Human papillomavirus, or HPV, deserves particular attention in men’s urological health.

There are more than 200 recognised HPV types. Some predominantly cause benign genital warts, while persistent infection with certain high-risk HPV types can contribute to cancer.

Genital warts can appear as:

  • small raised bumps
  • flat lesions
  • clusters of lesions
  • cauliflower-like growths
  • lesions around the penile shaft, foreskin, glans, urethral opening, pubic region or anus.

Treatment options can include topical medication, cryotherapy, diathermy, laser treatment or surgical removal depending upon their location and extent.

Does HPV cause penile cancer?

This is an important question.

Certain high-risk HPV infections are associated with penile cancer.

Persistent infection with oncogenic HPV can produce precancerous cellular changes known as penile intraepithelial neoplasia (PeIN), which in some men may eventually progress to squamous cell carcinoma.

WHO recognises persistent high-risk HPV infection as being associated with cancers of the penis as well as the anus and mouth/throat.

This does not mean that having HPV means you will develop penile cancer.

HPV infection is extraordinarily common and, in most people, the immune system controls the infection without it causing cancer.

However, a penile lesion that:

  • does not heal
  • repeatedly bleeds
  • becomes ulcerated
  • changes colour
  • gradually enlarges
  • produces persistent discharge
  • or remains despite treatment

should be examined by a doctor.

Persistent penile lesions occasionally require biopsy rather than repeated creams and crossed fingers.

HPV vaccination matters for men too

HPV vaccination is not simply a cervical cancer vaccine.

Vaccination can reduce the risk of acquiring important HPV types associated with genital warts and HPV-related cancers.

Australian STI guidelines recommend considering HPV vaccination in appropriate patients who have not previously been vaccinated. Importantly, the vaccine does not treat an existing wart, but may provide protection against future acquisition of other vaccine-covered HPV types.

Your GP or sexual health clinician can advise whether vaccination is appropriate for you.

Can an STI cause infertility?

Yes, although this is not inevitable.

The male reproductive tract is rather like a carefully organised plumbing system. Sperm have to travel from the testicle through the epididymis and vas deferens before eventually joining the ejaculatory pathway.

Inflammation or infection along that pathway can occasionally interfere with sperm transport or testicular function.

Chlamydia, for example, is recognised as a potential cause of epididymo-orchitis and infertility.

Epididymo-orchitis

STIs such as chlamydia and gonorrhoea may cause inflammation of the epididymis and sometimes the testicle.

Symptoms can include:

  • unilateral testicular pain
  • scrotal swelling
  • tenderness
  • urinary symptoms
  • urethral discharge
  • occasionally fever.

Severe or recurrent inflammation can potentially damage the reproductive tract.

Bilateral disease is of greater concern for fertility.

A very important warning

Sudden severe testicular pain should never simply be assumed to be an STI.

Testicular torsion can produce similar symptoms and is a surgical emergency. A suddenly painful testicle requires urgent medical assessment.

STIs and urethral strictures

One of the less frequently discussed long-term complications of severe or recurrent urethritis is urethral stricture disease.

A urethral stricture is an area of scar tissue that narrows the urethra, the tube carrying urine from the bladder through the penis.

Repeated inflammation can injure the urethral lining. Healing may subsequently produce fibrosis and scarring.

The result can be rather like replacing a wide garden hose with a drinking straw.

Symptoms of a urethral stricture include:

  • weakening urinary stream
  • spraying or splitting of the stream
  • straining to urinate
  • prolonged urination
  • incomplete bladder emptying
  • recurrent urinary infections
  • dribbling
  • urinary retention.

In modern Australian practice, sexually transmitted infection is only one of several potential causes of urethral strictures. Previous urethral instrumentation, catheterisation, trauma, surgery and inflammatory conditions such as lichen sclerosus are also important causes.

How is a urethral stricture investigated?

Depending upon the symptoms, investigation may include:

Uroflowmetry

The patient urinates into a specialised flow meter to measure the strength and pattern of the urinary stream.

Bladder ultrasound

An ultrasound can measure how much urine remains in the bladder after urination.

Flexible cystoscopy

A small flexible telescope is passed into the urethra to identify the location and severity of narrowing.

Retrograde urethrogram

Contrast is introduced into the urethra and X-rays are obtained to demonstrate the length and position of the stricture.

Treatment depends upon the length, location and severity of the narrowing and may include dilation, endoscopic urethrotomy or reconstructive surgery (urethroplasty).

How are STIs diagnosed?

There is no single universal “STI test.”

Testing is selected according to your symptoms, sexual history and sites of sexual exposure.

Testing may include:

Urine testing

A first-pass urine sample can be tested using NAAT/PCR for infections such as:

  • chlamydia
  • gonorrhoea.

Swabs

Depending upon sexual practices and symptoms, swabs may be taken from:

  • urethra
  • throat
  • rectum
  • genital ulcers or lesions.

Testing only the urine can therefore miss an infection elsewhere.

Australian STI guidelines recommend site-specific testing according to sexual exposure.

Blood tests

Blood testing may be recommended for:

  • HIV
  • syphilis
  • hepatitis B
  • hepatitis C in appropriate circumstances.

Examination and biopsy

Genital warts are often diagnosed clinically.

Persistent, unusual, pigmented, ulcerated or suspicious penile lesions may require biopsy to exclude PeIN, penile cancer or another dermatological condition.

What happens if an STI is diagnosed?

Management depends entirely upon the infection.

Bacterial infections such as chlamydia, gonorrhoea and syphilis can usually be treated with appropriate antibiotics.

Viral infections such as HSV and HPV behave differently. Treatment may control symptoms, outbreaks or visible lesions rather than completely eliminating the virus.

Depending upon the infection, management may also involve:

1. Treating the infection

Use the recommended antibiotic or antiviral therapy and complete treatment exactly as prescribed.

2. Partner notification

Current or recent sexual partners may require testing and treatment.

This is important because treating only one person can create an unfortunate game of microbial ping-pong, with infection repeatedly passing between partners.

3. Temporarily avoiding sexual contact

Your treating clinician will advise when sexual activity can safely resume.

4. Testing for other STIs

Finding one STI may indicate exposure to others, so broader testing may be appropriate.

5. Repeat testing

Some infections require repeat testing or retesting after an appropriate interval.

What about HIV?

Modern HIV prevention and treatment have changed dramatically.

People at increased risk of HIV may benefit from pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP).

After a significant recent exposure, post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP) may also be appropriate and should be sought urgently because treatment needs to begin promptly.

People living with HIV who receive effective antiretroviral treatment can achieve an undetectable viral load. HIV care should be coordinated through clinicians experienced in HIV medicine.

When should I see a doctor?

Arrange medical assessment if you develop:

  • penile discharge
  • burning when urinating
  • genital ulcers
  • genital blisters
  • genital warts
  • unexplained penile lumps
  • persistent redness of the glans or foreskin
  • testicular discomfort
  • scrotal swelling
  • persistent urethral discomfort
  • weakening urinary stream
  • or concern following unprotected sexual contact.

Seek urgent medical attention for:

Sudden severe testicular pain

This may represent testicular torsion rather than infection.

Inability to pass urine

This may indicate severe obstruction.

A persistent ulcer, lump or abnormal area on the penis

Particularly if it is enlarging, bleeding or failing to heal.

“But I feel completely normal”

This is one of the most important messages about STIs:

No symptoms does not necessarily mean no infection.

Australian STI guidelines specifically recognise that STIs can exist without producing symptoms.

Testing may therefore be sensible after:

  • a new sexual partner
  • multiple partners
  • condomless sex
  • notification from a sexual partner
  • known STI exposure
  • or when recommended as part of routine sexual health screening.

The type and frequency of testing should reflect your individual circumstances rather than embarrassment, assumptions or relationship status.

Prevention

Reducing STI risk may involve several complementary strategies:

  • using condoms appropriately
  • regular STI screening when indicated
  • HPV vaccination
  • hepatitis B vaccination where appropriate
  • HIV PrEP for people at increased risk
  • prompt testing following symptoms or partner notification
  • treating infections completely
  • ensuring relevant partners are tested or treated
  • avoiding sexual contact for the recommended period following treatment.

No strategy other than abstaining from sexual contact eliminates every possible STI risk, particularly because HPV and herpes can spread through areas of skin not covered by a condom.

A urologist’s perspective

Most STIs are diagnosed and managed very effectively by GPs and sexual health clinics.

A urologist becomes particularly useful when the infection has left something behind.

This may include:

  • persistent urethral symptoms
  • recurrent epididymitis
  • chronic testicular pain
  • suspected obstruction of the reproductive tract
  • fertility concerns
  • urethral stricture
  • recurrent urinary infections
  • genital lesions requiring biopsy
  • suspected penile intraepithelial neoplasia
  • or possible penile cancer.

In these circumstances, treating the original infection may only be part of the solution. The structural or functional consequences also need assessment.

The bottom line

Sexually transmitted infections are common, and having one should be regarded as a health issue rather than a moral judgement.

The greatest problems often arise not from the initial infection but from an infection that remains undiagnosed or untreated.

For men, potentially important consequences include urethritis, epididymo-orchitis, fertility problems and urethral stricture disease. Persistent infection with certain high-risk HPV types is also associated with penile cancer.

If something looks different, burns, discharges, ulcerates, grows, hurts or simply does not seem right, getting it checked is usually far easier than spending three weeks consulting Dr Google at midnight.

Early testing → appropriate treatment → partner management → fewer complications.

Australian resources

The Australian STI Management Guidelines provide evidence-based recommendations for STI testing, diagnosis and treatment in Australia.

Australian STI Management Guidelines

Medical disclaimer

This information is intended for general patient education and does not replace individual medical advice, examination or diagnosis. STI treatment recommendations can change, particularly because of antimicrobial resistance and medication availability. Patients with symptoms or concerns about possible exposure should discuss appropriate testing and treatment with their GP, sexual health service or urologist.

So, if you have a STD and battling to get over this with the condition, come see your Brisbane Urologist, Dr Jo to discuss this further.

Penile Cancer: Symptoms, Diagnosis and Treatment in Australia

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Penile cancer is rare, but early diagnosis matters

Penile cancer is an uncommon cancer affecting the skin and tissues of the penis. In Australia, approximately 165 men were estimated to be diagnosed with penile cancer in 2025, with the average age at diagnosis around 68 years. About 95% of penile cancers are squamous cell carcinomas (SCC).

Although the diagnosis can understandably be frightening, there is an important message:

When penile cancer is detected early, treatment is frequently curative and, in many men, much or all of the penis can be preserved.

Modern treatment has therefore moved increasingly towards penile-preserving therapy whenever this can be achieved safely.

Treatment in Australia will depend on:

  • whether the abnormality is precancerous or invasive cancer
  • the size and location of the tumour
  • how deeply it has invaded
  • the grade of the cancer
  • whether lymph nodes in the groin are involved
  • whether cancer has spread elsewhere
  • the man’s general health and personal preferences.

Because penile cancer is rare, patients with invasive or complicated disease benefit from discussion by a multidisciplinary team (MDT) involving urology, medical oncology, radiation oncology, radiology, pathology and specialist nursing.

 

What causes penile cancer?

There is rarely one single identifiable cause.

Important risk factors include:

  • infection with human papillomavirus (HPV)
  • smoking
  • phimosis, where the foreskin cannot be retracted
  • chronic inflammation of the penis
  • penile intraepithelial neoplasia (PeIN)
  • increasing age
  • some chronic penile skin disorders
  • immunosuppression.

HPV plays an important role in a proportion of penile cancers, although penile cancer can certainly occur without HPV infection.

What symptoms should men look for?

Penile cancer often begins as a visible or palpable abnormality, particularly involving the glans or foreskin.

Symptoms can include:

  • a red or discoloured area that does not disappear
  • persistent irritation or inflammation
  • thickening of the skin
  • a lump
  • a wart-like growth
  • an ulcer or sore that does not heal
  • bleeding
  • persistent discharge
  • an unpleasant smell from beneath the foreskin
  • increasing difficulty retracting the foreskin
  • pain or tenderness
  • swelling of the end of the penis
  • a lump beneath the foreskin
  • enlarged lymph nodes or lumps in the groin.

More advanced disease can occasionally cause difficulty passing urine, fatigue or unexplained weight loss.

A persistent penile lesion deserves examination

Most rashes, spots and lumps on the penis are not cancer. Infection, inflammation, dermatitis and benign skin conditions are much more common.

The important issue is persistence.

A penile ulcer, lump, bleeding area or unusual skin change that does not resolve should not be hidden away in the hope that it will disappear.

Embarrassment is considerably easier to treat than advanced cancer.

How is penile cancer diagnosed?

Examination

The first step is careful examination of the penis and foreskin.

The urologist will assess:

  • the site of the lesion
  • its size
  • whether it involves the glans, foreskin or shaft
  • whether deeper tissues appear involved
  • whether the foreskin can be retracted
  • whether there are enlarged lymph nodes in either groin.

Both groins are particularly important because penile cancer usually spreads first through the lymphatic system to the inguinal lymph nodes.

Biopsy

The diagnosis usually requires a biopsy.

A small piece of the abnormal tissue is removed and examined by a pathologist.

Depending upon the lesion, this may be:

  • a punch biopsy
  • an incisional biopsy, taking part of the lesion
  • an excisional biopsy, removing the whole small lesion.

A biopsy determines whether cancer is present and, importantly, identifies the type and grade of the tumour.

Histological confirmation is particularly important before treatments such as topical therapy, laser treatment or radiotherapy.

What is PeIN?

Penile intraepithelial neoplasia (PeIN) is a precancerous or very early cancerous change confined to the surface epithelium.

It has previously been described using terms such as carcinoma in situ.

PeIN is important because it can progress to invasive squamous cell carcinoma. Current European guidelines estimate progression to invasive disease despite treatment in approximately 2.6–13% of patients.

The good news is that PeIN can often be treated without removing part of the penis.

Treatment: from creams to major surgery

There is no single operation or treatment for penile cancer.

Modern management follows a ladder, beginning with the least invasive treatment capable of reliably controlling the cancer.

1. Circumcision

For abnormalities confined to the foreskin, circumcision may remove the lesion completely.

Circumcision is also frequently an important first step when PeIN involves the glans and foreskin because it allows the glans to be properly examined and treated.

For superficial disease, contemporary guidelines regard circumcision as an important primary surgical treatment.

2. Treatment with creams

Selected cases of biopsy-confirmed PeIN can be treated with medication applied directly to the penis.

The two most commonly used treatments are:

5-fluorouracil (5-FU)

5-FU is a topical chemotherapy medication.

It destroys abnormal rapidly dividing cells in the superficial layers of the penis.

Treatment usually produces inflammation of the treated area, which can include:

  • redness
  • burning
  • crusting
  • discomfort
  • erosion of the surface skin.

Imiquimod

Imiquimod is different. Rather than being conventional chemotherapy, it stimulates the local immune system to attack abnormal cells.

It can similarly cause substantial redness, swelling, ulceration or crusting during treatment.

These reactions can look alarming but often indicate that the medication is producing its intended biological effect.

Current EAU-ASCO guidance supports either 5-FU or imiquimod for appropriately selected biopsy-confirmed PeIN.

Importantly, the area must be reassessed after treatment.

If the abnormality persists, repeat biopsy or alternative treatment may be necessary. Repeated courses of topical treatment should not simply continue indefinitely when the lesion has failed to respond, because invasive cancer may be hiding beneath the surface.

3. Laser and other local treatments

Very superficial lesions can sometimes be treated using laser therapy.

Depending upon expertise and availability, other local treatments such as photodynamic therapy or cryotherapy have also been used.

These approaches can preserve the penis but require careful long-term surveillance because local recurrence is possible.

4. Penile-preserving surgery

One of the major changes in penile cancer surgery has been the move away from automatically removing a substantial portion of the penis.

Whenever oncologically safe, the aim is:

remove the cancer, obtain clear margins and preserve as much normal penis as possible.

Operations may include:

Wide local excision

The cancer and a margin of surrounding tissue are removed.

The defect may be closed directly or reconstructed with a skin graft.

Glans resurfacing

The abnormal surface layer of the glans is removed while preserving the deeper erectile tissue.

A skin graft is then placed over the glans.

This can be particularly useful for extensive superficial disease.

Glansectomy

If cancer is confined to the glans but is too extensive or invasive for simpler treatment, part or all of the glans may be removed.

Reconstruction can then be performed, often using a skin graft to create a new glans-like surface.

Current guidelines favour organ-preserving surgery for appropriately selected PeIN and T1–T2 tumours involving the glans or prepuce, provided the patient understands the need for careful follow-up.

5. Partial penectomy

More deeply invasive cancer may require removal of part of the penis.

This is called a partial penectomy.

The surgeon attempts to retain enough penile length to permit comfortable urination and, where possible, sexual function.

This may be necessary when cancer extends more deeply into the erectile tissues and cannot be reliably removed using penile-preserving techniques.

6. Total penectomy

Occasionally a cancer is too large, too proximal or too deeply invasive for part of the penis to be safely preserved.

A total penectomy may then provide the best opportunity for cure.

This understandably sounds confronting. It is generally reserved for circumstances in which less radical treatment would compromise cancer control.

Current EAU-ASCO recommendations support total penectomy with perineal urethrostomy for large invasive tumours that cannot safely be treated by partial penectomy.

What is a perineal urethrostomy?

This is sometimes mistakenly referred to as a “perineotomy”.

Following total removal of the penis, urine still needs a pathway from the bladder to the outside world.

The urethra is therefore brought to the skin of the perineum, the area between the scrotum and anus.

This opening is called a:

Perineal urethrostomy

The patient subsequently passes urine through this opening while sitting on the toilet.

A catheter is generally left temporarily while the area heals.

Once healed, most men can empty their bladder normally through the new opening and do not require a permanent catheter.

Potential problems include:

  • narrowing or stenosis of the opening
  • spraying
  • infection
  • wound complications
  • occasionally the need for further surgery.

A perineal urethrostomy does not mean that the bladder or kidneys have stopped functioning. It simply changes the final few centimetres of the urinary plumbing.

The lymph nodes are extremely important

Treating the penis itself is only one half of penile cancer management.

The other half is determining whether cancer has reached the inguinal lymph nodes in the groin.

Penile cancer generally spreads in a predictable sequence:

Penis → inguinal lymph nodes → pelvic lymph nodes → distant organs

Lymph-node involvement is the single most important prognostic factor in penile cancer.

What if there are no enlarged lymph nodes?

Unfortunately, normal-feeling groins do not completely exclude microscopic cancer.

Men with higher-risk primary tumours may therefore require further lymph-node assessment despite having no palpable lumps.

This may involve:

  • ultrasound of the groins
  • ultrasound-guided needle biopsy of abnormal nodes
  • dynamic sentinel lymph-node biopsy
  • inguinal lymph-node dissection in selected circumstances.

Current EAU-ASCO guidance recommends surgical lymph-node staging for patients at significant risk of microscopic metastatic disease, particularly T1b disease or higher.

What if a groin lymph node is enlarged?

An abnormal lymph node may be assessed using ultrasound and needle biopsy.

If metastatic penile cancer is confirmed, treatment may involve:

  • inguinal lymph-node dissection
  • pelvic lymph-node dissection in selected patients
  • chemotherapy
  • radiotherapy
  • combinations of these treatments.

Patients with clinically node-positive disease are generally staged with CT or FDG-PET/CT to assess pelvic and distant disease before definitive treatment.

Early treatment of lymph-node disease is extremely important.

Radiation therapy

Radiotherapy has an important but selective role in penile cancer.

Treatment of the primary cancer

Selected smaller T1 or T2 cancers can potentially be treated with radiation instead of surgery.

Treatment can involve:

External beam radiotherapy

Radiation is directed at the tumour from outside the body.

Brachytherapy

Radioactive sources are temporarily positioned within or very close to the tumour, allowing a concentrated radiation dose to be delivered while limiting exposure to surrounding tissues.

Radiotherapy may therefore provide another means of preserving the penis in appropriately selected patients.

Potential complications can include:

  • skin irritation
  • ulceration
  • fibrosis
  • narrowing of the urethra
  • changes in penile sensation
  • erectile dysfunction
  • tissue damage or necrosis in uncommon circumstances.

Radiotherapy is also used in selected patients for regional lymph-node disease, as part of chemoradiotherapy for advanced disease, or for palliation of symptoms from metastatic cancer.

Chemotherapy

Chemotherapy is generally reserved for more advanced penile cancer, particularly when significant lymph-node disease or metastatic disease is present.

In Australia, contemporary treatment may involve platinum-based combination chemotherapy.

One regimen used in advanced disease is:

TIP: paclitaxel + ifosfamide + cisplatin

Australia’s eviQ cancer treatment resource includes TIP as an option in neoadjuvant, adjuvant and metastatic penile cancer settings.

For bulky or fixed inguinal lymph-node disease or pelvic lymph-node involvement, chemotherapy may be given before surgery.

This is called neoadjuvant chemotherapy.

The aim is to:

  1. treat microscopic disease throughout the body,
  2. shrink the cancer in the lymph nodes,
  3. determine whether the cancer is responding,
  4. make subsequent surgery more effective or technically achievable.

Current international guidance recommends cisplatin- and taxane-based neoadjuvant chemotherapy for suitable patients with extensive inguinal or pelvic nodal disease, followed by surgery when appropriate.

Chemoradiotherapy

Radiotherapy and chemotherapy can sometimes be combined.

This may be considered for selected patients with:

  • locally advanced disease
  • unresectable cancer
  • extensive lymph-node disease
  • disease where major surgery is unsuitable
  • palliative treatment requirements.

The evidence is evolving, and these decisions should generally be made through a specialist penile cancer MDT.

What about immunotherapy?

Immunotherapy is an exciting area of cancer treatment, but its role in penile cancer is still developing.

Checkpoint inhibitors such as pembrolizumab and related drugs have demonstrated activity in some patients with advanced penile cancer, and newer combinations of chemotherapy and immunotherapy are being investigated.

However, response rates to checkpoint inhibitors alone are relatively modest and there is not yet sufficient evidence to use biomarkers such as HPV or PD-L1 routinely to determine which penile cancer patients should receive immunotherapy.

Clinical trials are particularly important for men whose cancer progresses despite standard platinum-based chemotherapy.

What happens to sexual function?

This depends enormously on treatment.

After topical treatment, circumcision, laser therapy, glans resurfacing or limited local excision, satisfactory sexual function may often be preserved.

After glansectomy or partial penectomy, intercourse may remain possible depending upon remaining penile length, erectile function and reconstruction.

After total penectomy, penetrative intercourse using the penis is no longer possible.

This does not mean that intimacy, sexual sensation or orgasm automatically disappears.

Sexual rehabilitation, psychological support and discussion with the patient and his partner can be an important component of recovery.

These conversations should ideally begin before treatment, not after it.

What is the prognosis?

Penile cancer is potentially highly curable when diagnosed before it has spread to lymph nodes.

The most important predictor of survival is not simply the size of the penile lesion but whether cancer has reached the lymph nodes.

Current EAU-ASCO data report approximate five-year cancer-specific survival according to nodal stage of:

Lymph-node stage Approximate 5-year cancer-specific survival
N0 – no lymph-node metastases 95%
N1 80%
N2 65%
N3 – advanced nodal disease 35%

These are population figures, not predictions for an individual patient.

Prognosis depends upon the tumour’s stage and grade, lymph-node involvement, response to treatment, general health and other pathological features.

The figures do, however, demonstrate why early diagnosis and appropriate assessment of the groin lymph nodes are so important.

Follow-up after treatment

Penile cancer requires ongoing surveillance.

Follow-up may include:

  • examination of the penis or reconstructed area
  • examination of both groins
  • assessment of the perineal urethrostomy where applicable
  • imaging in higher-risk patients
  • biopsy of suspicious recurrent lesions
  • monitoring urinary and sexual function
  • psychological and sexual-health support.

Penile-preserving treatment requires particularly careful surveillance because local recurrence can occur.

Importantly, a local recurrence identified early can often still be successfully treated.

Do not ignore a change in the penis

Penile cancer is uncommon, and most penile skin problems are benign.

Nevertheless, a persistent:

lump, ulcer, red patch, bleeding area, discharge, thickened foreskin or lesion that simply will not heal deserves examination.

There should be no embarrassment in asking your GP or urologist to have a look.

For early disease, treatment may be surprisingly conservative: sometimes circumcision, a cream, laser treatment or limited surgery is all that is required.

Even when invasive cancer is present, modern penile cancer surgery increasingly focuses on preserving penile tissue, urinary function and quality of life whenever this can be achieved without compromising cure.

For advanced disease, treatment becomes more complex and may involve partial or total penectomy, perineal urethrostomy, lymph-node surgery, radiotherapy and chemotherapy.

The crucial message is simple:

The earlier penile cancer is diagnosed, the greater the opportunity to cure it while preserving the penis.

Australian and international resources

Cancer Council Australia: Penile Cancer

Cancer Institute NSW: Penile Cancer

eviQ Australian Penile Cancer Chemotherapy Protocol

2026 EAU-ASCO Penile Cancer Guidelines

This information is intended for patient education and does not replace individual medical assessment. Treatment of penile cancer should be tailored to the tumour stage, pathology, lymph-node status, general health and preferences of the individual patient.

So, if you have noticed a lesion on your penis and it is growing, don’t ignore it and hope it will go away, go see your GP.

Testicular Cancer: Symptoms, Self-Examination, Diagnosis, Treatment and Prognosis

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One of the most curable cancers in men

A lump in the testicle can be frightening, particularly because testicular cancer often occurs in younger men. The reassuring news is that testicular cancer is one of the most successfully treated solid cancers.

When detected early, cure rates approach 100%. Even when the cancer has spread to lymph nodes, lungs or other parts of the body, modern chemotherapy and surgery can still cure many men.

The most important message is therefore:

Know what is normal for you, and if something changes, have it checked.

Most testicular lumps are not cancer, but a new lump, enlargement, hardness or persistent change in a testicle deserves medical assessment and usually an ultrasound.

The importance of checking your testicles

There is no population screening program for testicular cancer in Australia.

This makes testicular awareness particularly important.

Cancer Council Australia recommends that men become familiar with the normal shape, size and feel of their testicles and seek medical attention if they notice a lump, swelling, heaviness, aching or another change.

This is slightly different from recommending a rigid population-wide screening program. There is currently insufficient evidence that formal scheduled self-examination reduces mortality from testicular cancer.

Nevertheless, knowing your own anatomy makes sense.

How do I check my testicles?

A convenient time is during or after a warm shower or bath when the scrotal skin is relaxed.

Gently examine one testicle at a time between your fingers and thumb.

Become familiar with:

  • The usual size of each testicle
  • Its shape
  • Its firmness
  • The fact that one testicle commonly hangs slightly lower
  • The epididymis, which feels like a soft cord-like structure behind the testicle

You are not searching for microscopic abnormalities. You are simply learning what is normal for you.

Seek medical advice if you discover:

  • A new hard lump
  • Enlargement of one testicle
  • A change in shape
  • Increasing firmness
  • Persistent swelling
  • A heavy or dragging sensation
  • Persistent testicular discomfort
  • An unexplained difference from how the testicle normally feels

How often?

There is some variation between international recommendations.

The NHS in the United Kingdom advises checking the testicles regularly, approximately monthly, whereas Cancer Research UK emphasises awareness of what is normal rather than insisting upon a rigid monthly examination schedule.

In Australia, the practical message is best described as testicular awareness: become familiar with your testicles and investigate a persistent change rather than waiting to see whether it disappears.

Men at increased risk, including those with a previous undescended testicle, previous testicular cancer or significant family history, should discuss their individual surveillance with their doctor.

What is testicular cancer?

Approximately 90–95% of primary testicular cancers are germ-cell tumours.

They are divided into two broad groups:

Seminoma

Seminoma tends to behave in a relatively predictable manner and is extremely sensitive to both chemotherapy and radiotherapy.

Non-seminomatous germ-cell tumour (NSGCT)

This group includes:

  • Embryonal carcinoma
  • Yolk sac tumour
  • Choriocarcinoma
  • Teratoma
  • Mixed germ-cell tumours

A tumour containing both seminoma and non-seminomatous components is treated as a non-seminomatous germ-cell tumour.

An important clinical rule is:

Pure seminoma should not produce AFP.

If AFP is significantly elevated, the tumour is managed clinically as a non-seminomatous germ-cell cancer even if seminoma is reported in the pathological specimen.

Other testicular tumours

Less common tumours include:

Leydig cell tumours

Most are benign, although malignant variants occur.

Sertoli cell tumours

Again, most are benign but malignant variants are recognised.

Testicular lymphoma

Lymphoma becomes particularly important in older men and is managed quite differently from conventional germ-cell cancer.

Occasionally another cancer can metastasise to the testicle.

How does testicular cancer present?

The classic presentation is a:

Painless testicular lump

A man may notice:

  • Enlargement of one testicle
  • A hard area
  • A new lump
  • Alteration in shape
  • Increasing firmness
  • Scrotal heaviness

Testicular cancer can also cause discomfort or pain.

Therefore:

Pain does not rule cancer in, and absence of pain does not rule cancer out.

Symptoms of more advanced disease

When cancer has spread beyond the testicle, symptoms can include:

  • Back pain
  • Abdominal discomfort
  • Persistent cough
  • Shortness of breath
  • Chest symptoms
  • Enlarged lymph nodes
  • Weight loss
  • Fatigue
  • Breast tenderness or enlargement

Back pain can result from enlarged retroperitoneal lymph nodes behind the abdominal organs.

Diagnosis in Australia

The Australian diagnostic pathway is broadly consistent with European and British practice.

Step 1: Examination

Both testicles should be examined.

The abdomen and lymph-node regions may also be assessed.

Step 2: Testicular ultrasound

A high-resolution scrotal ultrasound with Doppler assessment is usually the first imaging investigation.

It determines whether a lesion is:

  • Within the testicle
  • Outside the testicle
  • Solid
  • Cystic
  • Vascular
  • Potentially malignant

A solid intratesticular mass should generally be considered malignant until proven otherwise.

Step 3: Tumour markers

Blood should ideally be collected before orchidectomy for:

AFP, Alpha-fetoprotein

May be elevated with:

  • Yolk sac tumour
  • Embryonal carcinoma
  • Mixed germ-cell tumours

β-hCG, Beta human chorionic gonadotropin

Can be elevated in:

  • Choriocarcinoma
  • Embryonal carcinoma
  • Mixed germ-cell tumours
  • Some seminomas

LDH, Lactate dehydrogenase

LDH is less specific but provides information regarding tumour burden and prognosis.

Importantly:

Normal tumour markers do not exclude testicular cancer.

Markers are repeated after orchidectomy because the rate at which AFP and β-hCG fall provides valuable information regarding whether active cancer remains elsewhere.

Step 4: Staging

Staging commonly involves CT imaging of the:

  • Chest
  • Abdomen
  • Pelvis

The retroperitoneal lymph nodes are particularly important because they represent the characteristic first lymphatic landing zone for many testicular cancers.

MRI can be used in selected circumstances.

PET scanning is not routinely recommended for initial staging.

FDG-PET has a specialised role after chemotherapy in selected patients with seminoma and a persistent residual mass.

Should the testicular lump be biopsied?

Usually no.

A needle biopsy through the scrotum is generally avoided when a germ-cell malignancy is suspected.

The standard procedure is:

Radical inguinal orchidectomy

The testicle and spermatic cord are removed through an incision in the groin.

This provides both treatment of the primary tumour and the tissue required for an accurate pathological diagnosis.

Fertility before treatment

This is particularly important because many patients are diagnosed while young.

The possibility of sperm banking should be discussed before chemotherapy, radiotherapy or other treatments that may impair fertility.

Ideally this conversation begins at diagnosis rather than after treatment has started.

One healthy remaining testicle will usually produce adequate testosterone and sperm, but some men with testicular cancer already have impaired sperm production before treatment.

Management of testicular cancer in Australia

Australian treatment is generally delivered through a multidisciplinary cancer team involving:

  • Urologists
  • Medical oncologists
  • Radiation oncologists
  • Radiologists
  • Pathologists
  • Fertility specialists when required

Complex metastatic, recurrent and post-chemotherapy disease is particularly suited to treatment through centres experienced in germ-cell cancer.

Australian practice broadly follows international evidence-based principles and is closely aligned with European and British practice, while incorporating Australian multidisciplinary cancer-care pathways.

Stage I seminoma

After radical inguinal orchidectomy, approximately 80% of men with unselected Stage I seminoma are cured by surgery alone.

For most reliable patients:

Active surveillance is generally preferred

This avoids exposing the majority of men who have already been cured to unnecessary chemotherapy or radiotherapy.

Surveillance involves scheduled:

  • Clinical review
  • Imaging
  • Tumour markers where appropriate

If recurrence occurs, treatment is usually extremely successful.

Adjuvant carboplatin

A single cycle of carboplatin may be considered for selected patients who prefer adjuvant treatment or for whom surveillance is unsuitable.

Radiotherapy

Radiotherapy is extremely effective against seminoma but is now used much less frequently for Stage I disease because of concern regarding long-term:

  • Secondary malignancies
  • Cardiovascular effects
  • Other radiation-related complications

Thus, in contemporary Australian practice, routine adjuvant radiotherapy for uncomplicated Stage I seminoma has largely moved into the background.

Stage I non-seminomatous germ-cell cancer

Approximately 70% of patients overall are cured by orchidectomy alone.

Management is influenced particularly by the presence or absence of lymphovascular invasion – LVI.

Without lymphovascular invasion

Surveillance is generally preferred for a reliable patient who is able to comply with follow-up.

With lymphovascular invasion

The risk of recurrence is considerably greater.

Options include:

  • Surveillance
  • One cycle of BEP chemotherapy

BEP consists of:

Bleomycin
Etoposide
Platinum – cisplatin

The advantages of avoiding unnecessary chemotherapy must be balanced against the increased likelihood of requiring several cycles of chemotherapy if metastatic recurrence subsequently occurs.

Retroperitoneal lymph-node dissection, RPLND

RPLND involves removal of lymph nodes from the retroperitoneum at the back of the abdomen.

It has an important but selective role.

In contemporary European and Australian-style practice, RPLND may be considered particularly for:

  • Selected marker-negative Stage II NSGCT
  • Residual masses after chemotherapy
  • Teratoma
  • Selected recurrent disease
  • Particular patients in whom chemotherapy is undesirable

Modern nerve-sparing RPLND attempts to preserve the sympathetic nerves responsible for normal antegrade ejaculation.

These procedures should ideally be performed in experienced high-volume centres.

Stage II seminoma

For limited Stage IIA or IIB seminoma, treatment options can include:

  • Radiotherapy
  • Cisplatin-based chemotherapy
  • In highly selected cases, specialist nerve-sparing RPLND

The precise choice depends upon lymph-node size, disease distribution, patient factors and the potential long-term consequences of each treatment.

For more extensive Stage IIB and Stage IIC disease, chemotherapy becomes increasingly favoured.

Metastatic seminoma and non-seminoma

Cisplatin-based combination chemotherapy transformed testicular cancer from a frequently fatal metastatic disease into one of the most curable metastatic solid cancers.

Common treatment includes:

BEP

Bleomycin + etoposide + cisplatin.

Depending upon the IGCCCG prognostic classification, treatment commonly consists of three or four cycles.

EP

Etoposide + cisplatin can be used in selected good-prognosis patients when bleomycin is unsuitable.

VIP

Etoposide + ifosfamide + cisplatin has a role in selected circumstances.

Surgery after chemotherapy

Surgery can remain crucial even after successful chemotherapy.

This is particularly important in non-seminomatous germ-cell cancer.

If tumour markers normalise but a residual retroperitoneal mass remains, surgery may reveal:

  • Fibrosis or necrosis
  • Mature teratoma
  • Persistent viable cancer

Teratoma is particularly important because it can be relatively resistant to chemotherapy and radiotherapy.

The EAU recommends surgical resection of visible residual NSGCT masses greater than 1 cm when serum tumour markers are normal or normalising.

What about immunotherapy?

Immunotherapy has revolutionised treatment for several urological cancers.

Unfortunately, germ-cell cancer has not followed the same script.

Checkpoint inhibitors targeting PD-1, PD-L1 and related pathways have been investigated in chemotherapy-resistant germ-cell tumours, but responses have generally been disappointing.

Therefore:

Immunotherapy is not standard first-line treatment for conventional seminoma or NSGCT in Australia, Europe, Britain or the United States.

Its role is currently largely confined to highly selected refractory disease and clinical trials.

European, British, Australian and American guidelines – are they different?

The reassuring answer is:

The major principles are remarkably similar.

All emphasise:

  1. Prompt ultrasound of a suspicious testicular mass
  2. AFP, β-hCG and LDH assessment
  3. Radical inguinal orchidectomy
  4. Appropriate CT staging
  5. Histological distinction between seminoma and non-seminoma
  6. Fertility discussion and sperm banking
  7. Surveillance for many Stage I cancers
  8. Cisplatin-based chemotherapy for metastatic germ-cell cancer
  9. Specialist surgery for appropriate residual or retroperitoneal disease

There are, however, some interesting differences in emphasis.

European approach: EAU

The European Association of Urology guidelines strongly favour avoiding unnecessary treatment.

For Stage I seminoma, surveillance is preferred when the patient can comply with follow-up.

Routine adjuvant radiotherapy is not recommended.

For Stage I NSGCT, the EAU uses lymphovascular invasion prominently for risk-adapted counselling:

  • LVI negative → surveillance generally preferred
  • LVI positive → surveillance or one cycle of BEP

Primary RPLND has a relatively limited role in Stage I NSGCT.

For marker-negative Stage IIA NSGCT, however, the 2026 EAU guideline supports nerve-sparing RPLND in an experienced specialised centre.

British approach

British practice is broadly similar to European practice.

The NHS pathway centres around:

Ultrasound → tumour markers → inguinal orchidectomy → staging → multidisciplinary oncology review.

Surveillance is commonly used following orchidectomy for appropriate Stage I disease.

Carboplatin remains an option for Stage I seminoma, while BEP chemotherapy is used for appropriate non-seminomatous and metastatic disease.

Radiotherapy retains a role predominantly in selected seminoma rather than non-seminomatous cancer.

British cancer services place considerable emphasis on:

  • Specialist germ-cell cancer multidisciplinary teams
  • Fertility preservation
  • Long-term follow-up
  • Minimising unnecessary treatment toxicity

This is very similar to contemporary Australian practice.

How does the American approach differ?

American management follows the same oncological principles, but the American Urological Association – AUA – gives RPLND somewhat greater prominence as an acceptable primary treatment option in selected early-stage disease.

For Stage IA NSGCT, the AUA recommends surveillance but recognises:

  • RPLND
  • One cycle of BEP

as alternatives for appropriate patients who decline surveillance or may not comply reliably.

For Stage IB NSGCT, American guidance recognises:

  • Surveillance
  • RPLND
  • One or two cycles of BEP

as options following shared decision-making.

This differs subtly from the EAU approach, where primary RPLND in Stage I NSGCT has a considerably narrower role.

Another evolving difference: RPLND for Stage II seminoma

Traditionally seminoma involving retroperitoneal lymph nodes was treated with either:

Radiotherapy or chemotherapy.

American guidelines have increasingly recognised primary RPLND as an option for carefully selected Stage IIA/IIB seminoma with limited retroperitoneal disease, particularly for patients wishing to avoid the potential long-term toxicity of chemotherapy or radiotherapy.

European recommendations are also evolving in this direction.

The 2026 EAU guideline now incorporates nerve-sparing RPLND and newer de-escalation strategies into the management discussion for selected Stage IIA/B seminoma.

This is an excellent example of why testicular cancer management continues to evolve.

Australia: where do we sit?

Australian practice sits comfortably between these international approaches.

For most Australian patients:

Stage I seminoma

Surveillance is generally preferred, with carboplatin available for selected patients.

Stage I NSGCT without LVI

Surveillance is generally preferred.

Stage I NSGCT with LVI

Surveillance or one cycle of BEP following individualised discussion.

Stage II seminoma

Radiotherapy or cisplatin-based chemotherapy depending upon disease volume, with increasingly selective consideration of surgical strategies in specialist centres.

Marker-positive metastatic disease

Cisplatin-based chemotherapy according to IGCCCG prognostic classification.

Residual NSGCT after chemotherapy

Surgical resection when indicated, ideally through an experienced germ-cell cancer service.

Australian cancer care increasingly emphasises multidisciplinary decision-making and treatment that achieves cure while reducing unnecessary long-term toxicity.

Why avoiding unnecessary treatment matters

A 25-year-old cured of testicular cancer may live another 60 years.

That changes the treatment equation.

The question is no longer simply:

“Which treatment will cure the cancer?”

It is also:

“Which treatment will cure this cancer while leaving the smallest possible footprint over the next several decades?”

This is why surveillance has become so important.

Chemotherapy and radiotherapy are extraordinarily effective, but they should be used when their benefit justifies their immediate and long-term risks.

Prognosis

The prognosis for testicular cancer is excellent.

Stage I disease has survival approaching 100%.

Even metastatic disease is frequently curable.

Prognosis depends upon:

  • Seminoma versus non-seminoma
  • Stage
  • Tumour-marker levels
  • Sites of metastatic disease
  • Response to chemotherapy
  • Tumour-marker decline
  • Presence of residual disease
  • Ability to completely resect appropriate residual masses

Importantly, doctors genuinely use the word cure when discussing metastatic testicular cancer.

After treatment: don’t forget the other testicle

Having had one testicular cancer increases the risk of developing cancer in the remaining testicle.

Men should therefore remain familiar with the remaining testicle and report any new abnormality promptly.

Long-term survivorship care may also address:

  • Testosterone levels
  • Fertility
  • Cardiovascular health
  • Kidney function
  • Hearing
  • Peripheral neuropathy
  • Lung health following bleomycin
  • Psychological wellbeing
  • Sexual health
  • Risk of late treatment complications

The take-home message

Testicular cancer tends to arrive at an inconvenient age, when most men are thinking about careers, relationships, families and weekend plans rather than cancer.

Fortunately, it is also one of medicine’s most impressive cancer success stories.

Know your testicles.

Become familiar with what is normal for you.

Don’t ignore a change.

A lump, enlargement, hardness, heaviness or persistent discomfort deserves examination.

Don’t be embarrassed.

Your urologist has quite literally made a career out of discussing these things.

And don’t assume a diagnosis of testicular cancer means the worst.

With modern surveillance, surgery, chemotherapy and selective radiotherapy, the overwhelming majority of men diagnosed with testicular cancer can expect to be cured.